The Aztecs

In his Book of Gods and Rites, Diego Duran (1537-1588) describes the life, culture and commerce of the Aztecs. Human sacrifices were common to these people. Diego noted that prisoners of war were sacrificed during feasts. After the sacrifice they were taken and eaten. These prisoners could number as many as fifty. Honor mattered in this society. People sought fame and the prestige of an important title. Kings did this through war. Killing people, taking the captives prisoners and demolishing the arm of the opponent were means to this end. Such actions were seen as brave and full of valor according to Diego's account.

Another means of making a name for oneself was through religion. The priesthood was such a path. After serving in the temple, performing sacrifices and penitential duties, priest were sent in their later years to take high and honorable duties. They gave counsel to the kings.

For others, a less glorious way of becoming important was through trade. Merchants bought and sold clothes, jewels, feathers, stones and slaves. They obtained wealth this way and were rich enough to but their own slaves which they sacrificed to the gods. It was said that the market gods were capable of punishing those who did not go to the market places. People were drawn to the excitement and action taking place in these places of trade.  It is interesting to note the role of religion in this society. It is closely linked to power and prestige. Even the market places were enclosed in a wall that stood in front of or to the side of temples of the gods. This also showed that religion permeated the day to day lives of the Aztec people.

Beyond Fears & Prejudices

A few years ago I visited a Muslim community center in Northern California. I attended the Friday noon prayer, Jumaa. I was greeted by a young Muslim woman and her daughter as I stood outside waiting for the lady who was to accompany me through this prayer experience. The kindness of this young Muslim woman in bringing me into the mosque and explaining the prayers that were soon to be said helped dispel much of my fear in being surrounded by unfamiliar people and an unfamiliar religion.

A man led the prayers and the women were able to better follow the prayers with the use of the T.V monitor in their room. Words from the Quran were read and the leader of the prayer gave a sermon. What I heard and understood of the sermon can be summarized as follows. “We have been blessed by God and sometimes we forget how blessed we are. The problem sometimes is that we cling to the gifts and forget the One who gave us those gifts. In good times we forget God but in adversity, we cry out to him. Adversity can be good for us. While we are enjoying relative peace and prosperity here, other Muslims are struggling. We must support them. We have been known to be a people who oppress others, and a people who are opposed to liberty and freedom. Look at Tunisia and the other countries that stood up against such oppression and dictatorship. Our brothers stood up for freedom non-violently. What Gandhi did was impressive but what these countries are doing is even more impressive because it is not just a single individual but an entire country standing up in a non-violent way against oppression."

 “We need to help Muslims and not just walk about ashamed as if we do not know what is happening around the world. Muslims are constantly fleeing for their life and looking for food for survival. Under such pressure how can they have the time to know Islam? How can they have time to invent things and dreams of things to improve the world? We need not just to listen to words of sermons and say ‘good talk’. No, we must let these words change our life. Sometimes year after year we come to Jumaa, listen to conferences but never change. These have to affect what we say and do. We need to love God, serve God and fear God.”

At the end of jumaa, announcements were made. An announcement was made welcoming me by name to the mosque. People stayed after the formal prayers for their private prayers. In the simplicity of the mosque, in the presence of God’s children offering to him the prayers they know, I felt I was in a holy place. My heart and mind were touched by this experience that challenged me to go beyond my fears and prejudices and be more open to recognizing and embracing Muslims as God’s children. Knowing better the people we fear or dislike is a great step toward an openness that can lead to genuine fraternity.

The Mongols

The Mongols were a pastoral people. After they brokeout from Mongolia they formed a large empire. The Mongol empire brought the civilizations of Europe, China and the Islamic world in contact with each other. They exploited the conquered people. Today there is evidence of the greatness of the ancient Roman and Greek empires. The Mongol empire on the other hand did not leave much being to be remembered by. Greeks are remembered today because of their great literary works, artistic sculptures, monuments and seminal thinkers like Socrates and Aristotle. The glories of the Roman empire are still visible today in architecture. In the Islamic empire, Islam was practiced as the common religion even by the conquered people. The Mongols did not try to spread their own faith to others.

Chinggis Khan when he became leader made it his aim to unite the entire world into one empire. He reorganized the military units. The Mongols because they were few in number included the conquered peoples in their military. Chinggis Khan's tactics were sometimes brutal. He sometimes wiped entire uncooperative groups of peoples. They Mongols developed efficient tax systems to extract taxes from conquered peoples. The Chinese and Muslims occupied posts with less important posts in the empire.
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Subjugation

Subjugation. People often think of this word in terms of governments and political structures. Is it possible to have a government without subjugation? I do not think subjugation is inevitable in human societies. Structures of governance do not necessarily have dominate citizens. They can also create order and divide up civic responsibilities according to people’s capabilities and education. It is not possible to have everyone do the same thing. This difference in positions, tasks and responsibilities allows for the creativity for people to use their gifts freely. There are many forms of government. In the ancient world large empires were formed through the conquering of people by stronger groups. The result was the emergence of large empire states made up of different peoples but united under the same ruler.

Is there an alternative form of governance that will can safeguard the rights, dignity and freedom of all people? For me the answer is not found in external structures. The answer lies within each person. If people are properly formed and educated, they will be more likely to act accordingly. The formation a person is the formation of a state or a nation. Many Greek philosophers like Socrates and Aristotle believed this. People have choices and can make a difference through their actions. To assert that subjugation is inevitable in human societies implies that people are not free or capable of choosing otherwise.

 

Socrates

Socrates throughout his life and right before his death is able to see the paradox in life. Most men who are considered wise are really foolish and men who appear foolish are indeed wise. According to him only God is wise and men have little wisdom. He has been accused of misleading the youth and for this has been sentenced to death. He sees nothing shameful about his sentence. He has lived well and has no fear of death. He would rather die for what he believed (his love for wisdom) than accept to be spared on the condition that he no longer freely philosophize. As much as he loves Athens, Socrates would rather obey God than the Athenians. We see here a true Philosopher and citizen. He is ready to die for his convictions. He knows his worth and predicts that if he is killed it will be more of a loss for Athens than for him. They will with great difficulty find another person like him. He was right. The world has not seen another Socrates but his thought continues to influence people and cultures millennia after his death.

The Chinese and Greeks both believed in the power of the human mind to understand the world and grasp reality. Confucius stressed the need for moral character and intellectual abilities as qualities government leaders should posses. Education and morals went hand-in-hand. Virtue was embodied in  wen -- rational, linguistic and literary abilities and wu --physical and martial achievements. The former occupied a higher place in society than the latter.

Impressiveness of the Ancient Empires

Societies and cultures today have been greatly influenced by the ancient empires. I am more impressed by the greatness of the ancient empires than by their destruction. I am impressed by the laws and systems of government that were developed to keep the societies in order. The vastness of the ancient Persian, Greek and Roman empires is astounding. The Persian empire stretched from Egypt to India and embraced about 35 to 50 million people. It is incredible  how so many diverse peoples, languages, cultures and states were unified into a single state. The Persians also had a well organized bureaucracy with tax collectors, record keepers and translators to facilitate administration.

It is hard to think of democracy as a system of government without remembering the ancient Greeks. Solon in 594 BC helped shape Athenian politics from an Aristocracy to a democratic system. This early in history they abolished debt slavery, and more men could hold public offices and have a voice in the Assembly. With time even the poorest people could serve since those chosen to serve were also paid. Trade flourished in this empire. They had a harbor of 1200 commercial ships. Greek culture was spread from its cities, market places and councils. Its monuments, sculptures and theaters were evidence of a powerful empire. Today some of the ruins of ancient Greece can be seen. Learning was very important to the Greeks and they had a library of about 700,000 volumes! Greek became a language of the elite. Even today people still study classical Greek. The Romans build on what was learned from the Greeks. Every civilization after the Greeks has been greatly influenced by the thoughts, life and contributions of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle to Philosophy, science and ethics.

 

Ancient Mesopotamia & China

Ancient Mesopotamia and China represent two of the early civilizations of the world. Mesopotamia began about 3500-3000BC while China's states were unified around 2200BC. The river valley of the Tigris and Euphrates played a great role in the development of agriculture in Mesopotamia. These rivers were also a source of constant floods. Mesopotamia was greatly urbanized and this led to an atmosphere of violence and discord among cities. In China the desire to restore a unified China led to the creation of an empire by the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties. As was the case in Mesopotamian, economic advancement brought along more sophisticated weapon in China. In both societies, the rules were clear and the punishments were well spelt out. The law code of Hammurabi proposed retaliation for offenses and substandard social behavior by Mesopotamians. China's politics was shaped by Legalism that also spelt out rules and punishments.

In both cultures the kings played a special role of mediator with the gods. China's religion was greatly shaped by Buddhism from India. Overall there seemed to be more peace and prosperity in ancient China. I would rather live in the ancient China because it is was more stable. The Chinese empire did not suffer the kinds of devastating floods experienced in Mesopotamia. The development of writing in ancient China is a reason I would prefer to live there rather than ancient Mesopotamia. The ruler Shihuangdi Qin helped institute standardized measurement, weight and currency system. Literacy, advanced art and science reflect a society that has achieved a level of living that affords citizens the "luxury" of simply enjoying their existence and creating beauty through its written works, arts and crafts. Rather than surviving day by day, I would rather thrive and flourish as a human being.

 

Advancement?

Civilization is a term often used to describe the cultural, scientific and government advancement of a people or society. Mesopotamia, Egypt and China are one of the first civilizations. As humans began to settle, their social structures became more organized. They developed governments and with governments came hierarchies. Inequality between genders and classes of the population became more visible and eventually became normal even for later cultures. Those with more resources did less manual labor. They had more land and wealth at their disposal. In Egypt pharaohs were buried in well designed pyramids. In Mesopotamia monuments of human heads were built to remember great rulers. As human beings began to settle down they could also be distinguished by their clothing, banners, weapons and homes. Trade also developed. Egypt and Mesopotamia traded with each other and beyond the Middle East to Africa and China. These cultures influenced each other. Today we benefit from the literacy and accounting skills that began with these early civilizations and developed over time. Our modern calendar traces is origins as far back ancient times.

The term civilization is paradoxical. It implies that there are uncivilized people and cultures. The word carries a sense of superiority. Advancement in some areas also led to the loss of other values like being egalitarian in gender, status and wealth. In the First Civilizations and many that followed the commoners represented the majority of the population. State officials on the other hand had more power and means to provide attendants, policemen and soldiers. This increased  the amount of violence in society. Slavery emerged at the same time as civilization. Over the years it took on different forms--with varying expectations and rights of the slaves if at all they had any. Robert Stayer says some historians prefer not to use the word "civilization" because it gives the impression that each society was a clearly defined, solid territory of peoples with a clear identity. However, it seems likely that local identities, clans and cultures were more important to people. This reminds me of the more "recent" notion of nations. Italy and German for example considered themselves members of specific regions before the independence of their countries.

We cannot have what we do not keep and we cannot keep what we do not value. Some people today long for a time when they believe things were simpler, more peaceful and beautiful. Would we fit in the First Civilizations if we were transported back in time? Our mindset would also have to change. The changes that come with each new time period are accompanied by parallel changes in the people. The transition is often gradual and makes adaptation possible. This adds to the new and different aspects of culture, science and politics that each time period contributes.

The Creative Testimony of Humanity

Is it possible to unlearn everything we know in order to have a more accurate and honest grasp of truths that present themselves to us in forms that call for interpretation? Is it possible to interpret without background? Our perspective is often colored by what we hope to find. We do not have much written documentation about the life, communities, activities and culture of the Paleolithic and Neolithic eras. The documentation provided at the end of the first chapter of Stayer's Ways of the World are presented with the consideration that historical accuracy is not guaranteed. Much is unknown. Nisa's interview, the visual discoveries of the Lascaux Rock Art, Stonehenge, Otzi, the Iceman and the Catalhuyuk female figurines are presented to help us situate ourselves for a brief moment outside our 21st century digital era. Our eagerness to understand and picture the distant past needs to be tempered by authenticity and accuracy in historical sources.

It is amazing to find in Nisa's story some similarities with Paleolitic age. Her father and husband were expected to provide food for the family by setting traps and hunting animals. She collected other food--probably the berries and tsin beans they ate. Another similar characteristic of that very late era is that her people also lived together in tight knit communities of few people. Nisa said in her interview with anthropologist Marjorie Shostak  that she owned nothing. Her wealth seems to be in her relationships--with her brother, her husband and community at large. Giving and receiving were an essential element of her community. This sharing and supporting one another I think might even be considered a "survival technique." People were expected to share, to give from the little they possessed. Most importantly, they gave of themselves This sharing was expected even of God. It is striking to see the anthropological qualities assigned God by Nisa. God is seen as the one responsible for destruction and death.

Writing as a means of communication was preceded by drawing and other forms of art. In the Lascaux Rock Art, one can see how thousands of years ago man was depicted among other animals. It is striking that the man in the image is relatively leaner than the animals. He seems to be lying horizontally while the animals are on their hinds. We are not sure whether all the figures were drawn at the same time. Taking the piece together as a whole, the animals seem to be given greater prominence than man. I wonder if this reflects the possibility that 17,000 years ago, man saw himself less as the center of creation and more as a part of it. This contrasts our present egoistic tendency to see everything in creation as being at the service of man.

We desperately want answers. We would like to know what helped form the Stonehenge if at all it was formed and not transported. Discovered large stones give evidence of a the Neolithic era. How can we look at discovered remains without projecting our postmodern expectations, ideas and knowledge? It is almost impossible to approach art with a blank mind. We bring (even inadvertently)prior knowledge, expectations and some prejudice. The female figurines found in modern Turkey which date back to about 5000 B.C.E have according to Strayer, let some like James Mellaart to believe that there was "evidence of an ancient cult of the "mother Goddess." Feminists may see this as evidence that women occupied a prominent or even more important role than men in religion and society thousands of years ago.

We cannot assume what the figurines meant to the people back then even if we know what they seem to suggest to us today. I think we already have important answers. The arts, crafts and stories of the past testify to that humanity has always valued love, relationships and life. The creativity of humanity that impels migration, adaptation and survival is the same creativity that gifts us with evidence of its existence through beautiful art and crafts. It is the testimony!

A Long Way

Human beings have come a long way. Just how far we have come, we shall never know exactly. It is amazing to think that the first human experiences can be traced back to Africa. This means we have the same origin and are all connected. Even though with time and climate changes, we have lost information about early peoples, there is enough to help us see the movements of migration out of Africa. It is interesting to see how between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, the movement ourside Africa was first to Eurasia, then Australia and finally the Americas.

 

In each new environment, humans had to adapt to their surroundings. This gave rise to the unique survinal techiques, beautiful crafts and cultures of each region. In today’s world where information, memories and processes are stored using complex and creative technology for the future, it might be hard to take our minds back to a time when it was not possible to capture the reality so vividly for future use. Today we place heavy emphasis on efficiency. It might be hard for us to appreciate the early hunting and agricultural methods of the Paleolithic age. Recent studies have shown that the early societies had more leisure time. Relationships in the between men and women in the first human societies were more equal than during later times. Each had specific roles—women gathered food and men hunted. Humans while being shaped by their environments, also shaped the environments in which they lived. Hunting and gathering led to the extinction of some animals in Siberia, Madagascar, North America and Siberia.

 

There is evidence that Paleolithic culture believed in a spiritual realm, though for them the spiritual world and material world were not always distinct. They believed in the supernatural. This belief points to something both sacred and natural in human beings--something that transcends time and culture.

First Post!

Here we go!